mardi 22 février 2011

Albert Einstein


Albert Einstein (né le 14 mars 1879 à UlmWurtemberg, et mort le 18 avril 1955 àPrincetonNew Jersey) est un physicien qui fut successivement allemand, puisapatride (1896), suisse (1901), et enfin helvético-américain (1940)1.
Il publie sa théorie de la relativité restreinte en 1905, et une théorie de la gravitation diterelativité générale en 1915. Il contribue largement au développement de la mécanique quantique et de la cosmologie, et reçoit le prix Nobel de physique de 1921 pour son explication de l’effet photoélectrique2. Son travail est notamment connu pour l’équationE=mc2, qui établit une équivalence entre la matière et l’énergie d’un système.

Biographie

Albert Einstein en 1925.
Albert Einstein, figure emblématique de la ville d’Ulm
Son père, Hermann Einstein, est né le 30 août 1847 à Buchaun, et meurt le10 octobre 1902 à Milan. Il épouse Pauline Koch le 8 août 1876. Trois ans plus tard, le14 mars 1879, Albert Einstein naît dans leur appartement à Ulm en Allemagne ; c’est leur premier enfant. Son intérêt pour la science est éveillé dans son enfance par une boussole à l’âge de cinq ans, et le livre La Petite Bible de la géométrie, à treize ans.
Il fait ses études primaires et secondaires à la Hochschule d’Argovie en Suisse, où il obtient son diplôme le 30 septembre 1896. Il a d’excellents résultats en mathématiques, mais refuse de s’instruire en biologie et en sciences humaines, car il ne perçoit pas l’intérêt d’apprendre des disciplines qu’il estime déjà largement explorées. Il considère alors la science comme le fruit de laraison humaine et de la réflexion. Il demande à son père de lui donner la nationalité suisse afin de rejoindre sa famille émigrée à Milan en Italie.
Il entre à l’École polytechnique fédérale de Zurich (ETH) en 1896 après y avoir cependant raté son premier examen d’entrée. Il s’y lie d’amitié avec le mathématicien Marcel Grossmann, qui l’aide plus tard en géométrie non euclidienne. Il y rencontre aussi Mileva Maric, sa première épouse. Il obtient avec justesse son diplôme en 1900 s’avouant lui-même dans son autobiographie, « incapable de suivre les cours, de prendre des notes et de les travailler de façon scolaire »3.
Au cours de cette période, il approfondit ses connaissances en autodidacte par la lecture de livres de référence, comme ceux de Boltzmann, de Helmholtz et de Nernst. Son ami Michele Besso l’initie aux idées de la Mécanique de Ernst Mach. Selon plusieurs biographies, cette période de1900 à 1902 est marquée par la précarité de sa situation : il postule à de nombreux emplois sans être accepté. La misère d’Albert Einstein préoccupe son père qui tente en vain de lui trouver un poste. Albert se résigne alors à s’éloigner du milieu universitaire pour trouver un emploi dans l’administration. En 1901, il publie son premier article scientifique dans les Annalen der Physik, et cet article est dédié à ses recherches sur la capillarité.
Le premier enfant d’Albert Einstein, Lieserl, naît à la fin de l’année 1902. Son existence fut longtemps ignorée des historiens, et il n’existe aucune information connue sur son devenir. Albert et Mileva se marient en 1903, son père lui ayant finalement donné sa permission sur son lit de mort. En 1904, le couple donne naissance à Hans-Albert, puis Eduard Einstein en 1910.
En 1902, il est embauché à l’Office des Brevets4 de Berne, ce qui lui permet de vivre correctement tout en poursuivant ses travaux. Durant cette période, il fonde l’Académie Olympia avec Conrad Habicht et Maurice Solovine, qui traduisit plus tard ses œuvres en français. Ce cercle de discussion se réunit au 49 de la rue Kramgasse, et organise des balades en montagne. Einstein partage le résultat de ses travaux avec Conrad Habicht et lui envoie les articles qu’il publie pendant l’année 1905 concernant les fondements de la relativité restreinte, l’hypothèse des quantade lumière et la théorie du mouvement brownien, et qui ouvrent de nouvelles voies dans la recherche en physique nucléairemécanique céleste, etc. L’article portant sur le mouvement brownien prend appui sur des travaux qu’Einstein développe plus tard et qui aboutissent à sathèse, intitulée Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen (« Une nouvelle détermination des dimensions moléculaires » en allemand), et à son diplôme de doctorat le 15 janvier 1906.3
En 1909, Albert Einstein est reconnu par ses pairs, en particulier Planck et Nernst qui souhaitent l’inviter à l’université de Berlin. Le 9 juillet 1909, il est distingué docteur honoris causa par l’université de Genève.3 Les offres d’emplois se multiplient. En 1911, il est invité au premier Congrès Solvay, en Belgique, qui rassemble les scientifiques les plus connus. Il y rencontre entre autres Marie CurieMax Planck et Paul Langevin. En 1913, Albert est nommé à l’Académie des sciences de Prusse.

dimanche 20 février 2011

Basic Knowledge about telescopes


A telescope is to first attend a star party or an event or Join Astronomica where there are a few telescopes showcased. That will give you an idea of what a telescopes capabilities are and how binoculars compare with telescopes, or which is the best telescope to buy. In this article, we have tried to present some theoretical parameters that characterize a telescope, and a good understanding of these parameters will help you choose the right telescope for you.

There are quite a few important factors that determine the capabilities of a telescope:

Telescope Parameters
  • Telescope type
  • Aperture
  • Focal Length
  • Type of mount
  • Motorization / Computer Control or GOTO
  • Compatibility with standard eyepieces
  • Cost
We shall now see how each parameter affects the capabilities of a telescope.
Telescope Type
There are many types of telescope which are classified as per the optics uesd. Telescope can be broadly classified as:
  • Refracting telescopes or Refractors
  • Reflecting telescopes or Reflectors
  • Catadioptric telescopes
Refractors use lenses to create an image of the faint / distant object. Reflectors use mirrors to focus an image of the object. Catadioptric telescopes use a combination of mirrors and lenses to create an image.

What are the pros and cons of each type? We will discuss refracting and reflecting telescopes as they are popular.

Refracting Telescopes

Refractor Telescopes use lenses to have image of the Object. Combination of lenses gives you required mangnification (hyp). Refractors are usually expensive because a well-engineered combination of several lenses is required to create a good image. Creation of Lenses are expensive because it consumes time and also requires a lot of engineering. 

Refractors suffer from a defect called "Chromatic Abbaration". This defect can be minimised by using special techniques to manufacture lenses and this results in "Achromatic Lenses" which again makes it expensive. But to remove chromatic abbaration so that the image is more crisp , Other techniques are used to create more error free lenses. Thus, there are two types of popular refractors:
  • Achromatic Refractors
  • Apochromatic Refractors or ED Scopes
An achromatic refractor will gives you  a quality image. Apochromatic lenses produce the most crisp images, and are ideal for photography of celestial objects. Apochromats are more expensive than Achromats.

Refractors are  not preferred for visual observations because as the aperture increases the cost increases exponentially, so only small aperture telescopes are used for visual observation to view planetary objects and close by objects.

Pros:
  • Very crisp image
  • Are usually portable
  • Ideal for astrophotography because the light gathered is more as compared to  Reflectors.
Cons:
  • Good apochromatic refractors are of huge cost.
  • Small aperture Refractors can view only planets and bright celestial objects only.
  • They are expensive
Reflecting Telescopes
Reflecting telescopes produce an image by using combination of mirrors.
  • Newtonian reflector
Newtonian reflectors are the most popular for visual observing of distant celestial objects.
Newtonian Reflectors
This is the most popular design for visual observing. Newtonian reflectors have two mirrors - a "primary" concave (actually parabolic) mirror and a "secondary" flat mirror. The primary mirror gathers the light from the celestial object and focusses it. The secondary mirror only changes the direction of the light, so that it is suitable for viewing. Big Aperture Mirrors are economical as compared to big aperture Lenses and the cost reduces heavily. Newtonian reflectors are the most suitable for visual observing and can also be used for Photography.

Pros:
  • They are cheaper
  • They come in a large range of apertures, starting from small 3-inch apertures to more than 30-inch aperture.
  • They are ideal for visual observing
  • They can also be used for Astro Photography.
  • Desired Magnifications can be obtained by using various focal lengths.
Cons:
  • Image quality usually not as good as apochromatic reflectors
  • Are usually designed to produce inverted images
  • Collimation is not easy, which requires skill and technique to learn, but it is not that problametic, it can be learned easily. Various collimating tools are available to help in collimation.
Catadioptric Telescopes http://www.spacearcade.blogspot.com/

This design is usually preferred for astrophotography of small celestial objects. This design accomodates long focal lengths in a shorter tube length, making it less bulky. A favourite amongst astrophotographers. 

To summarize:Schmidt Cassegrains are suitable when you want large magnifications, especially for photography.

Pros:
  • Large magnifications with small sizes
  • Ideal for photographing small objects.

Cons:
  • Expensive than Reflectors
Aperture

The clear aperture of a telescope is the diameter of the objective lens or primary mirror specified in either inches or millimeters (mm). The larger the aperture, the more light it collects and the brighter (and better) the image will be. Greater detail and image clarity will be apparent as aperture increases. In astronomical telescopes as http://spacearcade.in/The light-gathering power is more important than magnification.

The light-gathering ability of a telescope varies as the square of the diameter of its aperture. Which means that a 8" telescope is 4 times more powerful than a 4" telescope, which in turn is 4 times more powerful than a 2" telescope.

To summarize: Larger aperture helps you view objects more clearer by gathering more light from teh object.

Pros:
  • Larger aperture show more detail
  • Larger aperture increases contrast
  • Larger aperture shows fainter objects, more distant galaxies
  • Large aperture is ideal for deep-sky observing (seeing galaxies, nebulae, star clusters etc.)
Cons:
  • Larger aperture costs more
  • Larger aperture makes telescopes bulky
Focal Length

Focal length, usually measured in mm, refers to the focal length of the primary optical element (objective lens in refractors, primary mirror in reflectors). Larger focal length gives more magnification with the same eyepiece. Smaller focal length gives more field-of-view with the same eyepiece, but less magnification.

To observe planets in great detail, an objective with a long focal length and high optical quality is preferred. To observe deep-sky objects, an objective with a short focal length is preferred.


Read more: http://www.articlesbase.com/satellite-radio-articles/basic-knowledge-about-telescopes-4153644.html#ixzz1EXrM4jnp 
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A voyage to mars!


A group of six astronauts, all volunteers of Mars500, have completed their first mock and two of them will now embark on mastering the art of the "Mars walk" (Six volunteers - two from Europe, one from China and three from Russia) - locked themselves inside a set of connected, windowless modules in Moscow.
The Mars500 project is run by Russia's Institute of Biomedical Problems with the participation of the European Space Agency (ESA). It aims to investigate some of the physical and physiological effects that humans might encounter on a long-duration spaceflight. This "test drive" will provide valuable data in planning the future and real trip to the red planet of Mars.
A human mission to Mars with current-day propulsion requires only 180 days in transit each way. The Mars500 crew has endured isolation for a period significantly longer than that .The Moscow Institute of Medical and Biological Problems launched the 520-day experiment on June 3 last year.
The men will do a lot of similar work as the astronauts on the International Space Station (ISS) and will participate in more than 620 experiments. The experiment simulates the real time it would take to reach Mars and perform experiments while in total isolation from society. The group will join the Mars fictitiously on Monday as part of a trip lasting a total of a year and a half, simulated for scientific purposes.
Dr Christer Fuglesang an ESA astronaut and the head of the mission is a veteran of two shuttle missions to the International Space Station. He said: "Boredom and monotony - from our point of view what's important is to try to not give them too much or too little to do and then come up with some interesting things to beat the monotony."The main key outlet for the men has been karaoke. Video diaries have showed them venting their boredom through Blur's "Song 2", an often unmelodic version. Their diet has an uninspiring look and it will remain until November when the mission ends. The completion of this stage will see a manned mission to Mars that bit closer, though it's unlikely to see earlier than 2030.
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Read more: http://www.articlesbase.com/satellite-radio-articles/a-voyage-to-mars-4247798.html#ixzz1EXr8m5Og 
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Can I Watching TV on Computer? Yes, you can


In fact, the TV on your computer growing all the time. Some, like Microsoft's software is of the opinion that this is a step forward. In fact, he sent them a future in this case. In the new Windows Vista operating system has features specifically designed to allow these operations.
Method of TV tuner cards to what is limited in the antenna available, or it can be connected to basic cable TV services. All over the basic cable does not work with this method because it is encrypted with a cable network operator. You need a decoder channels of large buildings or pay per view. So this method to watching tv on computer is clean enough, there is no limit, it is safe.
You can access the service fees, watching tv on computer Atopsale.com Clock. While there are a lot of downloadable content is not yet fully alive. If you are looking for the body and blood of television, look elsewhere.
And the solution. You can watch live TV broadcast directly to your computer or TV connected to the computer. Using a variety of software you can watch TV programs, such as sports, development time for the core network, Reality TV and movements. He lives, and even better that there are thousands of channels around the world. When you talk about world events, or if you want a different perspective on news, is that a great resource.
Streaming software really confident in the sport, but. Here you can find events that are bad from the United States, including football, racing motorcycles and bicycles covered. Another advantage is that you get to the network the same way in different situations. Want to see if the local support is a bit "biased?" It can happen. Regardless of sport, whether on television around the world, you see.
Therefore, there are very good ways to watching tv on computer. Just click on how to do it to decide, and the cold!
Do not look only on the screen. To access the thousands of people watch TV on your PC. Do not miss the second game. Find out what you missed on your TV Guides .


Read more: http://www.articlesbase.com/cable-and-satellite-tv-articles/can-i-watching-tv-on-computer-yes-you-can-4253479.html#ixzz1EXqwYTRa 
Under Creative Commons License: Attribution